Complete NCERT Notes for CBSE Board Students
Nationalism refers to a feeling of collective identity and unity among people who share common history, culture, language and traditions. During the nineteenth century, nationalism became a powerful force that transformed Europe and led to the emergence of modern nation-states.
The French Revolution played a crucial role in spreading ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity, which inspired nationalist movements across Europe.
Before 1789, France was ruled by an absolute monarchy. Society was divided into estates and people had unequal rights. The French Revolution introduced the ideas of equality, citizenship and national unity.
Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons. Eastern and Central Europe were under the control of the Habsburg Empire and consisted of diverse groups speaking different languages.
People belonging to different regions gradually began to develop a common identity and demanded national unity.
A wealthy educated middle class emerged due to industrialisation and trade. This class promoted the ideas of freedom, equality and nationalism and played a major role in nationalist movements.
Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France and introduced several reforms through the Napoleonic Code of 1804.
Although Napoleon established his control over many European regions, his reforms helped spread nationalist ideas.
The Napoleonic Code abolished feudal privileges and established equality before law. It became one of the most influential legal reforms in Europe and inspired several countries.
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the major European powers met at Vienna to restore the old conservative order. This meeting, known as the Congress of Vienna, was hosted by Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich.
The main aim of the Congress was to undo the changes brought about by Napoleon and establish peace and stability in Europe.
Although the Congress of Vienna restored peace for some time, it failed to suppress the growing spirit of nationalism in Europe.
Liberalism was a political philosophy that emphasized freedom, equality before law and representative government. It aimed to end autocratic rule and establish constitutional governments.
Conservatism was a political philosophy that favored traditional institutions, monarchy and gradual change rather than sudden reforms.
Many secret societies were formed across Europe to train revolutionaries and spread nationalist ideas. Their aim was to overthrow monarchies and establish nation-states.
Giuseppe Mazzini was one of the most influential revolutionaries of Italy. He founded two secret societies:
He believed that God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind and worked for the unification of Italy.
The period between 1830 and 1848 witnessed several revolutionary movements in Europe. These revolutions were inspired by nationalism and liberalism.
The revolution in France overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and brought Louis Philippe to power. It also inspired nationalist movements in Belgium, Poland and other regions.
Greece was under Ottoman rule for many centuries. The Greek struggle for independence started in 1821 and received support from European nationalists. Finally, Greece became an independent nation in 1832.
The Revolution of 1848 was led by liberals and nationalists who demanded constitutional governments and national unity.
In May 1848, elected representatives met at St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt to create a constitution for a united Germany.
Despite its failure, the Frankfurt Parliament became an important milestone in the history of German nationalism.
The Frankfurt Parliament was the first attempt to unify Germany through a constitution and an elected assembly. Although unsuccessful, it inspired future nationalist movements.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1789 | Beginning of the French Revolution |
| 1804 | Napoleonic Code introduced |
| 1815 | Congress of Vienna |
| 1821 | Greek War of Independence began |
| 1830 | Revolution in France and Belgium |
| 1848 | Revolution of Liberals and Frankfurt Parliament |
After the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848, the task of German unification was taken over by Prussia. The process was led by Otto von Bismarck, who was the Chief Minister of Prussia. He believed in the policy of Blood and Iron, which meant using military power and diplomacy to achieve national unity.
| Year | War | Result |
|---|---|---|
| 1864 | War with Denmark | Victory of Prussia and Austria |
| 1866 | Austro-Prussian War | Defeat of Austria |
| 1870–71 | Franco-Prussian War | Defeat of France and unification of Germany |
In January 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles in France, and Kaiser William I became the Emperor of unified Germany.
During the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into several states and kingdoms. The unification of Italy was achieved through the efforts of revolutionaries and political leaders.
Unlike Germany and Italy, Britain did not achieve unity through revolution. It was formed gradually through political and economic developments.
The symbols of British identity such as the Union Jack, national anthem and English language helped create a common national identity.
The Balkan region consisted of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Albania, Montenegro and other territories. Most of these areas were under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
As nationalist feelings grew, different ethnic groups demanded independence and formed separate nation-states.
These tensions later contributed to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
| Personality | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Napoleon Bonaparte | Introduced the Napoleonic Code and spread revolutionary ideas. |
| Klemens von Metternich | Hosted the Congress of Vienna and supported conservatism. |
| Giuseppe Mazzini | Founded Young Italy and promoted nationalism. |
| Otto von Bismarck | Led the unification of Germany through Blood and Iron policy. |
| Count Camillo de Cavour | Played a major role in the unification of Italy. |
| Giuseppe Garibaldi | Led the Red Shirts and united southern Italy. |
| Victor Emmanuel II | Became the king of unified Italy. |
| Kaiser William I | Became the Emperor of unified Germany in 1871. |
| Event | Significance |
|---|---|
| French Revolution (1789) | Spread ideas of nationalism and democracy. |
| Napoleonic Code (1804) | Established equality before law and abolished feudal privileges. |
| Congress of Vienna (1815) | Restored conservative order in Europe. |
| Greek War of Independence (1821) | Led to Greek independence in 1832. |
| Frankfurt Parliament (1848) | First attempt to unify Germany through a constitution. |
| Unification of Italy (1861) | Created a unified Italian nation. |
| Unification of Germany (1871) | Established the German Empire. |
Otto von Bismarck believed that the unification of Germany could be achieved through military strength and diplomacy rather than speeches and debates. This approach became famous as the Blood and Iron Policy.
1789 │ ├── French Revolution begins │ 1804 │ ├── Napoleonic Code introduced │ 1815 │ ├── Congress of Vienna │ 1821 │ ├── Greek War of Independence begins │ 1830 │ ├── Revolution in France and Belgium │ 1848 │ ├── Revolution of Liberals ├── Frankfurt Parliament │ 1861 │ ├── Unification of Italy │ 1871 │ └── Unification of Germany
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Nation-State | A state where people share a common identity, culture and history. |
| Nationalism | A feeling of unity and loyalty towards one's nation. |
| Liberalism | Political ideology supporting freedom and equality before law. |
| Conservatism | Belief in preserving traditional institutions and gradual change. |
| Napoleonic Code | Legal code introduced by Napoleon in 1804. |
| Suffrage | The right to vote. |
| Plebiscite | A direct vote by people on an important issue. |
| Habsburg Empire | A multinational empire in Central Europe ruled by Austria. |
Most frequently asked topics in CBSE Board exams:
Remember the sequence:
French Revolution → Napoleon → Congress of Vienna → Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 → Germany → Italy → Britain → Balkans
Napoleon Bonaparte introduced the Napoleonic Code in 1804.
The Congress of Vienna was hosted by Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich.
Otto von Bismarck unified Germany through military power and diplomacy.
Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831.
The Balkans witnessed intense nationalist rivalries and conflicts, which later contributed to the outbreak of the First World War.